Sanitation, Water, and Instruction in Face-washing for Trachoma I/II
NCT ID: NCT02754583
Last Updated: 2025-12-10
Study Results
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Basic Information
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COMPLETED
PHASE3
47605 participants
INTERVENTIONAL
2015-12-05
2024-12-31
Brief Summary
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SWIFT II is a continuation of the first trial (WUHA I). WUHA I is an ongoing cluster-randomized trial in rural Ethiopia designed to determine the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for trachoma. 40 communities were randomized in a 1:1 ratio either to a comprehensive WASH package or to no intervention. The primary outcome is ocular chlamydia, monitored annually for 3 years.
In WUHA II we will treat all 40 WUHA communities with a single mass azithromycin distribution after the month 36 visit, and then continue the WASH intervention only in the 20 communities originally randomized to the WASH arm. We perform annual monitoring visits at months 48, 60, 72, and 84 for the primary outcome of ocular chlamydia among 0-5 year old children. A second aim of WUHA II is to perform a diagnostic test accuracy study of the tests already being conducted as well as several novel tests for trachoma surveillance. The novel tests include inexpensive, point-of-care nucleic acid amplification tests performed on conjunctival swabs, a lateral flow assay for chlamydia seropositivity tested on dried blood spots, and an automated algorithm to detect clinical signs of trachoma from conjunctival photographs. The primary objective of the second aim is to test the sensitivity and specificity of each of these trachoma surveillance tests.
By comparing the combined azithromycin-WASH communities to communities receiving mass azithromycin alone, we investigate the benefit of combining the "A", "F", and "E" components of the SAFE strategy as opposed to focusing on antibiotics alone. This is an important question given the expense of WASH interventions and the limited resources of trachoma programs.
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Detailed Description
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The World Health Organization recommends not only antibiotics for control of trachoma, but an entire SAFE strategy (Surgery for in-turned eyelids, Antibiotics, Facial hygiene promotion, and Environmental improvements such as latrines and water points). The rationale for the SAFE strategy is based on many years of observational studies on trachoma. Cross-sectional studies have found that clinically active trachoma and ocular chlamydial infection are associated with several indicators of poor hygiene, including dirty faces, face-seeking flies, long distance to water supply, and lack of household latrine. There are few randomized trials testing the impact of WASH improvements on trachoma.
In the past, the WHO has recommended targeted antibiotic treatments to those individuals with active disease, so this could be an alternative treatment strategy that would limit antibiotic use in the community and perhaps be cost-saving. However, little research has assessed targeted treatments as a strategy for trachoma elimination following repeated mass azithromycin distributions.
Our long term goal is to eliminate trachoma even in the most hyperendemic communities. This cluster-randomized clinical trial will determine the role of a comprehensive package of sanitation measures for the elimination of trachoma. We will monitor clinical disease with photography, and monitor infection with a newer chlamydial polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test (Abbott m2000) that is more sensitive than earlier generation tests, and provides quantification. We will monitor other potential health benefits of a WASH intervention and test its overall cost effectiveness. We will also assess a competing strategy for minimizing antibiotic use: that of targeted azithromycin treatments to children testing positive for ocular chlamydia. We will model the long-term cost-effectiveness of these competing strategies for trachoma control after completion of several rounds of mass azithromycin distributions.
Our monitoring has revealed a high uptake of the SWIFT I/WUHA I intervention as well as evidence of subsequent hygiene behavior changes. However, communities started out with a high burden of ocular chlamydia and preliminary data suggests that elimination will be unlikely. We therefore were granted an continuation grant (SWIFT II) to determine the long-term benefit of WASH for trachoma when combined with antibiotics, and second, to explore possibilities for low-cost, highly accurate point-of-care test for chlamydia.
With SWIFT II, we are extending the WUHA I trial by performing a single mass azithromycin distribution in all 40 communities after the final study visit (i.e., month 36), and continuing the WASH intervention in the 20 communities originally randomized to WASH. We are monitoring for ocular chlamydia via PCR of conjunctival swabs. We ask whether antibiotic distributions combined with a comprehensive, well-functioning WASH package is more likely to eliminate trachoma than antibiotics alone. We will also collect extra swabs and dried blood spots during routine monitoring visits and compare several inexpensive, commercially available NAATs and serologic tests for chlamydia. The SWIFT II trial leverages our existing SWIFT I research infrastructure and takes advantage of the fact that the intervention has already been implemented, and will have been operating for more than six years by the end of the proposed study. WASH interventions are thought to take a long time to work given their reliance on changing behavior, and thus we will increase the chances of finding an effect if one truly exists. Moreover, we will advance knowledge regarding trachoma surveillance, which has become increasingly important as the world moves towards global elimination. The results of the SWIFT II study will be of interest to the trachoma community, and regardless of the outcome will directly help trachoma programs decide how to spend their limited resources.
Conditions
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Study Design
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RANDOMIZED
PARALLEL
TREATMENT
SINGLE
Study Groups
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WASH arm (WUHA)
WUHA I, Behavioral: Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention: Communities will receive the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention including community water point construction, hygiene and sanitation education and promotion, community-based hygiene promotion workers, household wash stations, household WASH education books, household soap distribution, and a hygiene curriculum for primary schools.
WUHA II, Behavioral and Treatment: WASH intervention communities will continue to receive the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention.
A single mass azithromycin distribution will be given in all 40 WUHA I communities (both intervention and control) after the final study visit (i.e., month 36). Children 6 months and up will be offered azithromycin 20mg/kg; those under 6 months will be offered tetracycline.
Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention
WASH arm: Communities will receive the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention including water point construction and maintenance, hygiene and sanitation education and promotion, community-based hygiene promotion workers, household wash stations, household WASH education books, household soap distribution, and a hygiene curriculum for primary schools.
Azithromycin
20mg/kg
Tetracycline
Tetracycline will be administered in lieu of azithromycin if individual is under 6 months, has a known azithromycin allergy, or is severely ill.
Standard of care WASH arm (WUHA)
WUHA I: Standard of care WASH intervention: Communities will continue to receive the standard of care WASH programming offered by the Ethiopian government.
WUHA II: Standard of care WASH intervention and treatment: Communities will continue to receive the standard of care WASH programming offered by the Ethiopian government.
A single mass azithromycin distribution will be given in all 40 WUHA I communities (both intervention and control) after the final study visit (i.e., month 36). Children 6 months and up will be offered azithromycin 20mg/kg; those under 6 months will be offered tetracycline.
These communities will receive a WASH package at the conclusion of the SWIFT II study, including water point construction, hygiene and sanitation promotion, and educational materials.
Standard of care WASH intervention
Stand of care WASH arm
Azithromycin
20mg/kg
Tetracycline
Tetracycline will be administered in lieu of azithromycin if individual is under 6 months, has a known azithromycin allergy, or is severely ill.
Targeted antibiotics arm (TAITU)
Targeted antibiotic treatment: Communities will receive targeted antibiotic treatments for children testing positive for ocular chlamydia at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after baseline testing. After testing for ocular chlamydia at 12 months, any children testing positive at this time point will receive antibiotic treatments at 15, 18, 21, and 24 months. Children 6 months and up will be offered azithromycin 20mg/kg; those under 6 months will be offered tetracycline.
Azithromycin
20mg/kg
Tetracycline
Tetracycline will be administered in lieu of azithromycin if individual is under 6 months, has a known azithromycin allergy, or is severely ill.
Delayed mass antibiotics arm (TAITU)
Delayed mass antibiotic treatment: Communities will receive no mass azithromycin treatment during the study period. Communities in this treatment group have previously received at least 8 rounds of mass azithromycin treatment. These clusters will be enrolled in an antibiotics treatment program (azithromycin or tetracycline) after the completion of the study.
Control
The control group will receive no intervention during the trial. They will be enrolled in mass antibiotic treatment at the conclusion of the trial.
Mass antibiotics arm (TAITU)
Mass antibiotic treatment: Communities will receive mass azithromycin treatment of all individuals aged 6 months and up (20mg/kg for children; 1 g for adults); those younger than 6 months, pregnant, or allergic to macrolide antibiotics will be offered a 2-week course of tetracycline.
Azithromycin
20mg/kg
Tetracycline
Tetracycline will be administered in lieu of azithromycin if individual is under 6 months, has a known azithromycin allergy, or is severely ill.
Interventions
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Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention
WASH arm: Communities will receive the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) intervention including water point construction and maintenance, hygiene and sanitation education and promotion, community-based hygiene promotion workers, household wash stations, household WASH education books, household soap distribution, and a hygiene curriculum for primary schools.
Standard of care WASH intervention
Stand of care WASH arm
Azithromycin
20mg/kg
Tetracycline
Tetracycline will be administered in lieu of azithromycin if individual is under 6 months, has a known azithromycin allergy, or is severely ill.
Control
The control group will receive no intervention during the trial. They will be enrolled in mass antibiotic treatment at the conclusion of the trial.
Other Intervention Names
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Eligibility Criteria
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Inclusion Criteria
* Area within each school district with a site identified for water point construction
* At least 5 rounds of mass azithromycin distributions had been performed within community
* All residents residing within a 1.5km radius from the most promising potential water point the water point sites within the school district that were identified for the study
Exclusion Criteria
* School districts in the 2 urban regions of the study area, since urban communities have better access to water and sanitation and have less trachoma
* Refusal of village chief
Individual Level
* Refusal of participant \[or parent/guardian\]
1 Day
120 Years
ALL
Yes
Sponsors
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University of California, San Francisco
OTHER
The Carter Center
OTHER
Amhara Public Health Institute
UNKNOWN
Emory University
OTHER
National Eye Institute (NEI)
NIH
Responsible Party
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Principal Investigators
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Zerihun Tadese, MD, MPH
Role: STUDY_DIRECTOR
The Carter Center Ethiopia
Jeremy D Keenan, MD, MPH
Role: PRINCIPAL_INVESTIGATOR
University of California San Francisco Proctor Foundation
Dionna M Wittberg, MPH
Role: STUDY_DIRECTOR
UCSF Proctor Foundation
Locations
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The Carter Center Ethiopia
Addis Ababa, , Ethiopia
Countries
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References
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Frank T, Thompson IJB, Aragie S, Wittberg DM, Tadesse W, Dagnew A, Hailu D, Melo JS, Zeru T, Tadesse Z, Arnold BF, Freeman MC, Nash SD, Callahan EK, Porco TC, Lietman TM, Keenan JD. Effect of water, sanitation, and hygiene on childhood growth in Ethiopia: a cluster-randomized trial. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2025 Nov 27;271:114718. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2025.114718. Online ahead of print.
Caleon RL, Admassu F, Aragie S, Hailu D, Dagnew A, Zeru T, Wittberg DM, Thompson IJB, Abdu S, Beyecha S, Birhanu T, Getachew H, Getnet B, Kabtu E, Shibiru M, Tekew S, Wondimteka B, Lietman TM, Nash SD, Freeman MC, Keenan JD. Photographic grading to evaluate facial cleanliness and trachoma among children in Amhara region, Ethiopia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2024 Jul 11;18(7):e0012257. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012257. eCollection 2024 Jul.
Tedijanto C, Aragie S, Gwyn S, Wittberg DM, Zeru T, Tadesse Z, Chernet A, Thompson IJB, Nash SD, Lietman TM, Martin DL, Keenan JD, Arnold BF. Seroreversion to Chlamydia trachomatis Pgp3 Antigen Among Children in a Hyperendemic Region of Amhara, Ethiopia. J Infect Dis. 2024 Aug 16;230(2):293-297. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiad602.
Aragie S, Wittberg DM, Tadesse W, Dagnew A, Hailu D, Chernet A, Melo JS, Aiemjoy K, Haile M, Zeru T, Tadesse Z, Gwyn S, Martin DL, Arnold BF, Freeman MC, Nash SD, Callahan EK, Porco TC, Lietman TM, Keenan JD. Water, sanitation, and hygiene for control of trachoma in Ethiopia (WUHA): a two-arm, parallel-group, cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2022 Jan;10(1):e87-e95. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00409-5.
Wittberg DM, Aragie S, Tadesse W, Melo JS, Aiemjoy K, Chanyalew M, Emerson PM, Freeman MC, Nash SD, Callahan EK, Tadesse Z, Zerihun M, Porco TC, Lietman TM, Keenan JD. WASH Upgrades for Health in Amhara (WUHA): study protocol for a cluster-randomised trial in Ethiopia. BMJ Open. 2021 Feb 22;11(2):e039529. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039529.
Provided Documents
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Document Type: Study Protocol
Document Type: Statistical Analysis Plan
Other Identifiers
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14-14004
Identifier Type: -
Identifier Source: org_study_id
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