Trial Outcomes & Findings for Effects of Choline From Eggs vs. Supplements on the Generation of TMAO in Humans (NCT NCT03039023)

Results Overview

Changes in levels of non-labeled TMAO from baseline to end-of-study (day 28) as measured by established techniques by mass spectrometry.

Recruitment status

COMPLETED

Study phase

NA

Target enrollment

86 participants

Primary outcome timeframe

Baseline, 28 days

Results posted on

2025-11-04

Participant Flow

Participant milestones

Participant milestones
Measure	Whole Hardboiled Eggs Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Overall Study STARTED	19	20	17	20	10
Overall Study COMPLETED	18	20	16	18	10
Overall Study NOT COMPLETED	1	0	1	2	0

Reasons for withdrawal

Reasons for withdrawal
Measure	Whole Hardboiled Eggs Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Overall Study Withdrawal by Subject	1	0	1	1	0
Overall Study Physician Decision	0	0	0	1	0

Baseline Characteristics

Effects of Choline From Eggs vs. Supplements on the Generation of TMAO in Humans

Baseline characteristics by cohort

Baseline characteristics by cohort
Measure	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.	Total n=82 Participants Total of all reporting groups
Age, Continuous	25.5 years n=15 Participants	27.0 years n=161 Participants	37.0 years n=100 Participants	30.0 years n=3 Participants	31.5 years n=8 Participants	28.0 years n=7 Participants
Sex: Female, Male Female	8 Participants n=15 Participants	9 Participants n=161 Participants	15 Participants n=100 Participants	10 Participants n=3 Participants	6 Participants n=8 Participants	48 Participants n=7 Participants
Sex: Female, Male Male	10 Participants n=15 Participants	11 Participants n=161 Participants	1 Participants n=100 Participants	8 Participants n=3 Participants	4 Participants n=8 Participants	34 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native	0 Participants n=15 Participants	0 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	0 Participants n=3 Participants	0 Participants n=8 Participants	0 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) Asian	3 Participants n=15 Participants	1 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	0 Participants n=3 Participants	2 Participants n=8 Participants	6 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander	0 Participants n=15 Participants	0 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	0 Participants n=3 Participants	0 Participants n=8 Participants	0 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American	2 Participants n=15 Participants	2 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	2 Participants n=3 Participants	1 Participants n=8 Participants	7 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) White	13 Participants n=15 Participants	15 Participants n=161 Participants	16 Participants n=100 Participants	16 Participants n=3 Participants	7 Participants n=8 Participants	67 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race	0 Participants n=15 Participants	0 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	0 Participants n=3 Participants	0 Participants n=8 Participants	0 Participants n=7 Participants
Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported	0 Participants n=15 Participants	2 Participants n=161 Participants	0 Participants n=100 Participants	0 Participants n=3 Participants	0 Participants n=8 Participants	2 Participants n=7 Participants
Region of Enrollment United States	18 Participants n=15 Participants	20 Participants n=161 Participants	16 Participants n=100 Participants	18 Participants n=3 Participants	10 Participants n=8 Participants	82 Participants n=7 Participants
TMAO at Baseline	2.0 uM n=15 Participants	1.9 uM n=161 Participants	2.3 uM n=100 Participants	2.6 uM n=3 Participants	2.8 uM n=8 Participants	2.3 uM n=7 Participants

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, 28 days

Population: All participants with TMAO measured at baseline and Day 28.

Changes in levels of non-labeled TMAO from baseline to end-of-study (day 28) as measured by established techniques by mass spectrometry.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a Choline Metabolite Baseline	1.9 uM Interval 1.4 to 3.4	2.0 uM Interval 1.4 to 3.5	2.3 uM Interval 1.5 to 2.8	2.6 uM Interval 1.8 to 5.3	2.8 uM Interval 2.0 to 5.1
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a Choline Metabolite Day 28	11.1 uM Interval 7.1 to 25.4	2.3 uM Interval 1.9 to 3.7	12.3 uM Interval 5.1 to 26.5	28.1 uM Interval 9.2 to 44.1	3.4 uM Interval 2.6 to 7.1

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

The activation and functioning of platelets within a single subject will be compared before and after increased choline intake.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=10 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=10 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=10 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=9 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Platelet Function With Increased Choline Intake Baseline	2.6 aggregation percentage Interval 1.2 to 7.2	2.6 aggregation percentage Interval 1.4 to 5.3	2.3 aggregation percentage Interval 1.6 to 3.0	3.0 aggregation percentage Interval 2.3 to 5.0	2.8 aggregation percentage Interval 2.0 to 4.0
Changes in Platelet Function With Increased Choline Intake Day 28	12.8 aggregation percentage Interval 7.6 to 27.2	3.6 aggregation percentage Interval 2.5 to 7.7	12.3 aggregation percentage Interval 6.1 to 25.7	29.4 aggregation percentage Interval 17.9 to 43.3	3.4 aggregation percentage Interval 2.6 to 7.1

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Changes in levels of non-labeled TMAO from baseline to Day 28 measured by established mass spectrometry techniques.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=19 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Levels of Fasting Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) in 24-hour Urine Collections Day 28	139.0 mg in 24 hours Interval 90.1 to 308.9	28.5 mg in 24 hours Interval 23.1 to 36.7	221.8 mg in 24 hours Interval 166.3 to 294.3	186.9 mg in 24 hours Interval 91.2 to 232.4	33.1 mg in 24 hours Interval 19.9 to 64.6
Changes in Levels of Fasting Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) in 24-hour Urine Collections Baseline	26.2 mg in 24 hours Interval 15.6 to 40.3	24.3 mg in 24 hours Interval 13.0 to 44.3	27.5 mg in 24 hours Interval 9.1 to 36.2	29.3 mg in 24 hours Interval 18.4 to 45.9	15.8 mg in 24 hours Interval 12.9 to 35.6

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Fasting plasma levels of choline from samples obtained at baseline and at day 28 were compared.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Choline Baseline	7.5 uM Interval 6.5 to 9.3	8.3 uM Interval 6.6 to 10.2	8.5 uM Interval 7.6 to 11.2	9.5 uM Interval 7.6 to 11.6	7.6 uM Interval 6.7 to 9.1
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Choline Day 28	12.9 uM Interval 10.8 to 16.0	10.9 uM Interval 8.9 to 12.4	14.0 uM Interval 11.7 to 15.7	12.8 uM Interval 10.2 to 14.1	10.6 uM Interval 9.2 to 11.6

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Fasting plasma levels of carnitine from samples obtained at baseline and at day 28 were compared.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Carnitine. Baseline	21.2 uM Interval 16.6 to 25.1	19.1 uM Interval 16.3 to 22.8	21.5 uM Interval 16.8 to 24.8	21.1 uM Interval 16.5 to 26.6	23.4 uM Interval 17.8 to 28.1
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Carnitine. Day 28	18.7 uM Interval 15.5 to 21.0	19.4 uM Interval 13.4 to 27.9	15.6 uM Interval 10.9 to 19.4	18.9 uM Interval 15.2 to 23.2	20.8 uM Interval 19.1 to 27.5

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Fasting plasma levels of betaine from samples obtained at baseline and at day 28 were compared.

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Betaine. Baseline	38.2 uM Interval 28.7 to 48.7	28.1 uM Interval 23.6 to 48.3	30.7 uM Interval 18.4 to 35.7	38.7 uM Interval 23.3 to 47.7	33.6 uM Interval 23.3 to 45.0
Changes in Plasma Levels of Fasting Betaine. Day 28	69.0 uM Interval 54.4 to 82.2	39.7 uM Interval 29.4 to 55.5	46.9 uM Interval 33.9 to 67.5	59.8 uM Interval 41.6 to 65.6	46.3 uM Interval 28.3 to 64.0

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Changes in total cholesterol levels between baseline and Day 28

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Lipid Profile, Total Cholesterol Day 28	172 mg/dL Interval 157.0 to 191.0	158 mg/dL Interval 136.0 to 180.0	198 mg/dL Interval 168.0 to 221.0	178 mg/dL Interval 157.0 to 193.0	172 mg/dL Interval 151.0 to 213.0
Changes in Lipid Profile, Total Cholesterol Baseline	180 mg/dL Interval 147.0 to 201.0	156 mg/dL Interval 145.0 to 175.0	187 mg/dL Interval 172.0 to 204.0	186 mg/dL Interval 150.0 to 189.0	175 mg/dL Interval 159.0 to 217.0

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Changes in measured HDL levels between baseline and Day 28

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Lipid Profile, HDL Baseline	49 mg/dL Interval 40.0 to 60.0	48 mg/dL Interval 44.0 to 66.0	57 mg/dL Interval 50.0 to 65.0	48 mg/dL Interval 39.0 to 63.0	61 mg/dL Interval 49.0 to 65.0
Changes in Lipid Profile, HDL Day 28	51 mg/dL Interval 44.0 to 60.0	49 mg/dL Interval 44.0 to 65.0	56 mg/dL Interval 49.0 to 74.0	50 mg/dL Interval 41.0 to 57.0	62 mg/dL Interval 42.0 to 64.0

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Changes in measured LDL levels between baseline and Day 28

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=20 Participants Subjects will consume two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets	Whole Hardboiled Eggs n=18 Participants Subjects will consume four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs per day for 28 days. Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Hardboiled Eggs + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=16 Participants Subjects will consume both four (4) whole, pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Pre-cooked, pre-peeled whole hardboiled eggs: Obtained from a commercial source.	Egg Whites + Choline Bitartrate Tablets n=18 Participants Subjects will consume both the egg whites (no yolks) of four (4) pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs and two (2) 500mg choline bitartrate tablets per day for 28 days. Choline Bitartrate: 500mg choline bitartrate tablets Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs: Egg whites from pre-cooked, pre-peeled hardboiled eggs. The yolks are removed and discarded.	Phosphatidylcholine Capsules n=10 Participants Subjects will consume six (6) 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules by mouth per day for 28 days. Phosphatidylcholine capsules: 420 mg phosphatidylcholine capsules obtained from a commercial source.
Changes in Lipid Profile, LDL Day 28	94 mg/dL Interval 82.0 to 119.0	86 mg/dL Interval 71.0 to 110.0	118 mg/dL Interval 87.0 to 132.0	101 mg/dL Interval 87.0 to 121.0	106 mg/dL Interval 79.0 to 136.0
Changes in Lipid Profile, LDL Baseline	90 mg/dL Interval 80.0 to 124.0	91 mg/dL Interval 72.0 to 102.0	108 mg/dL Interval 98.0 to 120.0	104 mg/dL Interval 86.0 to 124.0	107 mg/dL Interval 90.0 to 137.0

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Baseline, Day 28

Changes in measured triglyceride levels between baseline and Day 28