Trial Outcomes & Findings for Sensitive Periods in Human Flavor Learning (NCT NCT01667549)

Last Updated: 2019-12-09

Results Overview

Taste testing conducted on infants to determine acceptance of plain cereal, carrot-flavor cereal (exposed flavor for intervention groups) and broccoli-flavored cereal (novel flavor for all groups) after weaning, which occurred at \~ 8 months of age. Outcomes included intake (in grams).

Recruitment status

COMPLETED

Study phase

Target enrollment

97 participants

Primary outcome timeframe

6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days )

Results posted on

2019-12-09

Participant Flow

Pregnant women or newly parturient women who intended to breastfeed their infants exclusively for at least 4 months were recruited from ads in local newspapers, websites, and Philadelphia Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) offices. We enroll mother -infant dyads because both members of the dyads were tested.

No mother-infant dyads were excluded from the study prior to assignment to groups.

Participant milestones

Participant milestones
Measure	1M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Overall Study STARTED	20	20	21	20	16
Overall Study COMPLETED	17	15	14	14	15
Overall Study NOT COMPLETED	3	5	7	6	1

Reasons for withdrawal

Reasons for withdrawal
Measure	1M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Overall Study Withdrawal by Subject	3	5	7	6	1

Baseline Characteristics

Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.

Baseline characteristics by cohort

Baseline characteristics by cohort
Measure	1M0.5 n=20 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 n=20 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 n=21 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	3M0.5 n=20 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control n=16 Participants Mothers will not receive the intervention.	Total n=97 Participants Total of all reporting groups
Age, Continuous Infants' Age in months	0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=5 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.	0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=7 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.	0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=5 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.	0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=4 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.	0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=21 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.	0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 • n=8 Participants • Dyads consists of mothers and their infants and different measures were obtained from each.
Age, Continuous	32.5 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 4.4 • n=5 Participants	30.5 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 6.2 • n=7 Participants	29.8 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.2 • n=5 Participants	29.9 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.1 • n=4 Participants	31.7 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.9 • n=21 Participants	30.8 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.4 • n=8 Participants
Sex: Female, Male Sex of Infants · Female	10 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	11 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	9 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	13 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	7 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	50 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers
Sex: Female, Male Sex of Infants · Male	10 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	9 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	12 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	7 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	9 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	47 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers
Sex: Female, Male Sex of Mothers · Female	20 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	20 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	21 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	20 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	16 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	97 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers
Sex: Female, Male Sex of Mothers · Male	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants · Hispanic or Latino	2 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	4 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	3 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	14 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants · Not Hispanic or Latino	18 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	16 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	17 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	17 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	15 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	83 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants · Unknown or Not Reported	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Hispanic or Latino	2 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	3 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	2 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	2 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Not Hispanic or Latino	18 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	17 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	19 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	18 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	16 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	88 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Unknown or Not Reported	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · American Indian or Alaska Native	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · Asian	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	2 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · Black or African American	3 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	7 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	8 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	8 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	5 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	31 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · White	13 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	49 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · More than one race	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	3 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	3 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	15 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Infants · Unknown or Not Reported	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · American Indian or Alaska Native	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Asian	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	2 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Black or African American	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	7 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	10 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	5 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	35 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · White	14 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	9 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	11 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	10 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	10 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	54 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · More than one race	2 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	3 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	1 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	6 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers · Unknown or Not Reported	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from mothers.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants · TAS2R38 genotype, AA [non taster]	7 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	6 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	3 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	7 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	8 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	31 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants · TAS2R38 genotype AP [taster, heterozygote]	12 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	8 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	11 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	7 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	5 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	43 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants · TAS2R38 genotype PP [taster]	1 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	6 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	7 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	6 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	2 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	22 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants · Genotyping unsuccessful	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	1 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	1 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers · TAS2R38 genotype, AA [non taster]	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	5 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	5 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	7 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	11 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	32 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers · TAS2R38 genotype AP [taster, heterozygote]	12 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	9 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	9 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	8 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	3 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	41 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers · TAS2R38 genotype PP [taster]	4 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	6 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	7 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	5 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	2 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	24 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.
Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers · Genotyping unsuccessful	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=7 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=5 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=4 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=21 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.	0 Participants n=8 Participants • Infants are reported separately from their mothers. Genotyping was unsuccessful for one infant.

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days )

Population: Some of the infants refused to eat (plain cereal: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; carrot cereal: 1M0.5, N=2; 1M1.5, N=2; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; Broccoli: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=3; 3M0.5 , N=1) and therefore the number participants analyzed differs from number in each group

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	1M0.5 n=17 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 n=15 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control n=15 Participants Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] Intake of plain cereal in grams	56.8 intake in grams Standard Error 13.2	42.4 intake in grams Standard Error 12.4	29.0 intake in grams Standard Error 8.5	40.7 intake in grams Standard Error 8.3	36.5 intake in grams Standard Error 6.2
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] Intake of carrot cereal in grams	78.2 intake in grams Standard Error 14.8	36.6 intake in grams Standard Error 10.0	57.7 intake in grams Standard Error 19.9	52.2 intake in grams Standard Error 9.8	41.1 intake in grams Standard Error 7.6
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] Intake of broccoli cereal, grams	41.8 intake in grams Standard Error 12.7	25.5 intake in grams Standard Error 8.8	30.9 intake in grams Standard Error 10.1	34.4 intake in grams Standard Error 12.4	3.04 intake in grams Standard Error 6.5

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: Monthly, 0.5 to 4.5 months

Population: Two mothers did not complete the ratings on one test date.

Psychophysical testing conducted on mothers to rate their taste of carrot, beet, celery, mixed vegetable (exposed flavors for intervention groups) and apple juices using the hedonic gLMS (hedonic general labelled magnitude scale). Ratings on the scale range from -100 (strongest imaginable dislike) to 0 (neutral) to 100 (strongest imaginable like).

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	1M0.5 n=17 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 n=15 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control n=15 Participants Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Apple, 3.5 mos	13.39 units on a scale Standard Error 3.52	22.56 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	17.01 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	19.56 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	19.44 units on a scale Standard Error 3.75
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Apple, 4.5 months	15.89 units on a scale Standard Error 2.73	19.87 units on a scale Standard Error 3.01	15.45 units on a scale Standard Error 3.01	19.94 units on a scale Standard Error 3.01	22.06 units on a scale Standard Error 2.91
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline)	-0.07 units on a scale Standard Error 4.84	-3.35 units on a scale Standard Error 5.15	-1.28 units on a scale Standard Error 5.33	-2.02 units on a scale Standard Error 5.33	-4.71 units on a scale Standard Error 5.15
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Carrot, 1.5 mos	6.21 units on a scale Standard Error 3.41	1.28 units on a scale Standard Error 3.63	3.91 units on a scale Standard Error 3.75	4.17 units on a scale Standard Error 3.75	1.46 units on a scale Standard Error 3.63
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Carrot, 2.5 mos	5.67 units on a scale Standard Error 3.19	3.51 units on a scale Standard Error 3.39	2.08 units on a scale Standard Error 3.51	6.30 units on a scale Standard Error 3.51	-2.53 units on a scale Standard Error 3.39
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Carrot, 3.5 mos	3.10 units on a scale Standard Error 3.36	6.20 units on a scale Standard Error 3.71	7.78 units on a scale Standard Error 3.7	3.05 units on a scale Standard Error 3.71	1.56 units on a scale Standard Error 3.58
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Carrot, 4.5 mos	5.86 units on a scale Standard Error 3.35	4.82 units on a scale Standard Error 3.69	6.20 units on a scale Standard Error 3.69	2.63 units on a scale Standard Error 3.69	2.75 units on a scale Standard Error 3.57
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline)	5.81 units on a scale Standard Error 5.37	1.18 units on a scale Standard Error 5.72	-0.65 units on a scale Standard Error 5.92	0.87 units on a scale Standard Error 5.92	-3.21 units on a scale Standard Error 5.72
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Beet, 1.5 mos	3.13 units on a scale Standard Error 4.16	9.35 units on a scale Standard Error 4.43	-2.20 units on a scale Standard Error 4.58	3.40 units on a scale Standard Error 4.58	5.73 units on a scale Standard Error 4.43
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Beet, 2.5 mos	9.29 units on a scale Standard Error 3.50	6.41 units on a scale Standard Error 3.73	-0.68 units on a scale Standard Error 3.86	1.02 units on a scale Standard Error 3.86	9.17 units on a scale Standard Error 3.73
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Beet, 3.5 mos	10.87 units on a scale Standard Error 3.94	7.74 units on a scale Standard Error 4.34	7.54 units on a scale Standard Error 4.34	3.52 units on a scale Standard Error 4.34	6.82 units on a scale Standard Error 4.20
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Beet, 4.5 mos	8.63 units on a scale Standard Error 3.48	10.34 units on a scale Standard Error 3.83	9.35 units on a scale Standard Error 3.83	3.58 units on a scale Standard Error 3.83	7.89 units on a scale Standard Error 3.70
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline)	1.22 units on a scale Standard Error 5.05	0.20 units on a scale Standard Error 5.38	0.82 units on a scale Standard Error 5.57	0.97 units on a scale Standard Error 5.57	11.32 units on a scale Standard Error 5.38
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos	9.48 units on a scale Standard Error 3.96	0.18 units on a scale Standard Error 4.22	1.11 units on a scale Standard Error 4.36	4.30 units on a scale Standard Error 4.36	10.69 units on a scale Standard Error 4.22
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos	10.19 units on a scale Standard Error 3.31	6.32 units on a scale Standard Error 3.52	2.23 units on a scale Standard Error 3.65	6.14 units on a scale Standard Error 3.65	7.57 units on a scale Standard Error 3.52
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos	7.00 units on a scale Standard Error 3.52	5.69 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	3.81 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	6.01 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	10.42 units on a scale Standard Error 3.75
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos	8.40 units on a scale Standard Error 3.32	6.83 units on a scale Standard Error 3.66	1.02 units on a scale Standard Error 3.66	3.62 units on a scale Standard Error 3.66	7.87 units on a scale Standard Error 3.54
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline)	0.59 units on a scale Standard Error 4.72	-5.33 units on a scale Standard Error 5.02	-13.35 units on a scale Standard Error 5.20	-12.46 units on a scale Standard Error 5.20	-10.36 units on a scale Standard Error 5.02
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Celery, 1.5 mos	-3.93 units on a scale Standard Error 3.86	-0.90 units on a scale Standard Error 3.92	-13.48 units on a scale Standard Error 4.06	-9.68 units on a scale Standard Error 4.06	-5.44 units on a scale Standard Error 3.92
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Celery, 2.5 mos	-0.92 units on a scale Standard Error 3.99	-0.51 units on a scale Standard Error 4.24	-3.01 units on a scale Standard Error 4.39	-6.20 units on a scale Standard Error 4.39	-2.88 units on a scale Standard Error 4.24
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Celery, 3.5 mos	-5.12 units on a scale Standard Error 3.72	1.07 units on a scale Standard Error 4.10	-10.40 units on a scale Standard Error 4.10	-8.07 units on a scale Standard Error 4.10	-6.69 units on a scale Standard Error 3.96
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Celery, 4.5 mos	-6.15 units on a scale Standard Error 3.77	-1.44 units on a scale Standard Error 4.16	-5.89 units on a scale Standard Error 4.16	-5.87 units on a scale Standard Error 4.16	-2.91 units on a scale Standard Error 4.02
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline)	17.85 units on a scale Standard Error 3.64	17.48 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88	22.41 units on a scale Standard Error 4.02	14.57 units on a scale Standard Error 4.02	23.72 units on a scale Standard Error 3.88
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Apple, 1.5 mos	17.04 units on a scale Standard Error 2.98	20.08 units on a scale Standard Error 3.17	11.81 units on a scale Standard Error 3.28	18.23 units on a scale Standard Error 3.28	20.36 units on a scale Standard Error 3.17
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. Apple, 2.5 months	18.09 units on a scale Standard Error 2.95	15.97 units on a scale Standard Error 3.15	17.91 units on a scale Standard Error 3.26	16.72 units on a scale Standard Error 3.26	19.39 units on a scale Standard Error 3.15

PRIMARY outcome

Timeframe: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days)

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	1M0.5 n=17 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 n=15 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control n=15 Participants Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) Rate of feeding, carrot cereal	7.2 grams per minute Standard Error 1.1	3.6 grams per minute Standard Error 0.8	4.8 grams per minute Standard Error 1.3	3.9 grams per minute Standard Error 0.5	3.9 grams per minute Standard Error 0.6
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) Rate of feeding, plain cereal	6.1 grams per minute Standard Error 0.9	3.9 grams per minute Standard Error 1.1	4.0 grams per minute Standard Error 0.8	4.3 grams per minute Standard Error 0.4	4.9 grams per minute Standard Error 0.6
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal	4.8 grams per minute Standard Error 0.8	2.4 grams per minute Standard Error 0.9	4.5 grams per minute Standard Error 1.0	3.8 grams per minute Standard Error 0.9	4.1 grams per minute Standard Error 0.8

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days)

Population: Some of the infants refused to eat (plain cereal: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; carrot cereal: 1M0.5, N=2; 1M1.5, N=2; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; Broccoli: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=3; 3M0.5 , N=1) and therefore the number of maternal ratings analyzed differs from number in each group

Mothers rated infants' enjoyment of the taste of the cereal (9-point scale); aratings range from 1 (extreme dislike) to 9 (extreme like).

Outcome measures

Outcome measures
Measure	1M0.5 n=17 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M1.5 n=15 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	1M2.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months of age	3M0.5 n=14 Participants Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old. Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.	Control n=15 Participants Mothers will not receive the intervention.
Maternal Perceptions Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea	5.4 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.6	4.6 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.8	4.1 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.9	5.2 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.6	3.9 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.5
Maternal Perceptions Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal	6.0 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7	4.7 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7	7.1 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.4	6.1 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.5	6.1 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7
Maternal Perceptions Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere	4.2 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7	2.9 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.6	4.7 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7	4.3 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.6	4.1 Score on a scale Standard Error 0.7

SECONDARY outcome

Timeframe: Once a month from ages 0.5 - 4.5 months, 10.5 months

Population: Number of infants who were weighted and measured to determine Weight for Length Z scores (WLZ) during trial; some dyads did not complete the trial so number of participants analyzed does not always match number enrolled.

At each visit, infants were weighed and measured to monitor normal growth. These anthropometric data were converted to weight-for-length z-scores (WLZ) using World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards. The Z-score expresses the anthropometric value as a number of standard deviations or Z-scores below or above the reference mean or median value. Normal range for Z score is -2.0 (minimum) to 2.0 (maximum).